Title
Report to the Secretary of the Interior
Creator
Van H. Manning
Identifier
WWP22276
Date
1917 February 1 - 1918, March 1
Source
Library of Congress, Woodrow Wilson Papers, 1786-1957
Text
R E P O R T
to the
S E C R E T A R Y O F T H E I N T E R I O R
on the
RESEARCH WORK
of the
BUREAU OF MINES
ON GASES USED IN WARFARE
FEBRUARY 1, 1917 to MARCH 1, 1918
VAN. H. MANNING,
DIRECTOR.
PURPOSE OF THE WORK.
Research work on chemical physiological and some mechanical problems pertaining to gas warfare for the Army and Navy.
ORGANIZATION
.PERSONNEL.)..... Civilians 376
Exclusive)..... Commissioned officers 56 of “Argon”)..... Enlisted men 311and Cyan-) ide Plants.)Total 743
Report to)follow lat-)er when)these plants )are in full)operation.)
APPROPRIATIONS AVAILABLE TO DATE.
Army – Bureau of Ordnance $524,500
Army - Surgeon General's Office 437,500
Navy – National Security and Defense Fund
150,000 Total appropriations made to March 1, 1918,$1,112,000
OXYGEN APPARATUS INVESTIGATIONS.
Army – Signal Corps 150,000“ARGON” INVESTIGATIONS.
Army – Signal Corps $350,000
Navy – Bureau Steam Engineering
350,000
Total appropriation 700,000
CYANIDE PLANT 2,000,000
Total allotment for war work $3,962,000
DEPARTMENTS.
Chemical Research
Mechanical Research
Pyrotechnic Research
Chemical Manufacture
Therapeutic Research
Physiological Research
Pathological Research
Pharmacological Research
Gas Mask Research
Administration
Cyanide Plant
“Argon” Investigations.
DEVELOPMENT OF GAS WARFARE WORK BY THE BUREAU OF MINES.
The Bureau of Mines, for its work on mining problems, has made a study of poisonous and explosive gases, the use of rescue apparatus and masks of various kinds for entering and exploring noxious atmospheres, methods of treatment of gas cases and other matters pertaining to these problems. This work has extended over a period of about ten years. Many publications have been issued by the Bureau on these subjects and many practical results have been obtained.
Early in February of 1917, when war between the United States and the Central Powers seemed inevitable, the Bureau of Mines called the attention of the War Department to the already existing technical organization in the Bureau, for the study of poisonous gases in mines, gas masks, etc., and offered the facilities of the Bureau to the War Department for this work. A meeting was arranged between representatives of the Bureau and the War College; the latter organization being represented by General Kuhn and Major Williamson. At this conference the War Department enthusiastically accepted the offer of the Bureau of Mines and agreed to support the work in every way possible. The Director of the Bureau of Mines immediately directed investigations on these war problems, and until July 1, 1917, carried the work along with funds of the Bureau. The first work was done on the development of gas masks. An enthusiastic and able cooperator from the Surgeon General's Office was Major L. P. Williamson, who gave much of his time and was of the very greatest assistance in the early days of the work. On July 1, 1917, the staff consisted of fifty paid investigators and the work had expanded from gas mask research to the study of poison gases and chemical warfare appliances for offense purposes. In order to enlist the cooperation of the universities and research institutions in the United States, personal visits were made to practically all of the important ones. The response was most gratifying. Up to the present time some extremely important work has come out of these universities and institutions.
On April 6, 1917, the following committee on gases used in warfare was formed by the National Research Council for the purpose of cooperating with the Bureau of Mines in connection with this work:Van. H. Manning, Chairman,... Director, U. S. Bureau of Mines,Col. Edwin B. Babbitt,..... Office of Ordnance, U. S. A.,Maj. L. P. Williamson,..... Medical Department, U. S. A.,Lt. (j. g.) T. S. Wilkinson,.. Bureau of Ordnance, U. S. N.,Medical Director J. D. Gatewood, Medical Department, U. S. N.,Dr. Marston T. Bogert,..... Professor of Organic Chemistry, Columbia University,Dr. Carl L. Alsberg,...... Chief, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Owing to reassignment of certain Army and Navy officers and additions to the committee it is now composed of the following:Van. H. Manning, Chairman,... Director, U. S. Bureau of Mines,George E. Hale, (Ex-officio).. Director, Mt. Wilson Solar Observatory, National Research Council,Lt. Col. R.A. Millikan, (Ex-officio) National Resarch Council, Science and Research Division, Signal Corps,Carl L. Alsberg,...... Chief, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,Maj. Earl J. Atkisson,..... Corps of Engineers, U. S. A.,Lt. Col. Marston T. Bogert,.. Chemical Service, N. A.Lt. Col. Bradley Dewey,.... Gas Defense Service, Surgeon General's Office,A. H. Marks,.......... Director, Gas Service, U. S. A.,Lieut. Joseph R. Phelps,.... P. A. Surgeon, Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, U. S. N.,Lt. Col. Earl J. W. Ragsdale,. Bureau of Ordnance, U. S. A.,Lieut. T. S. Wilkinson,.... Bureau of Ordnance, U. S. N.This committee has worked in hearty cooperation with the Bureau of Mines.Until August, 1917, the Bureau of Mines also supervised the construction of gas masks. Experiments from laboratory scale were developed into large scale proportions and charcoal soda lime permanganate and other chemicals used in the masks were made in large quantities. On the mechanical side, the rubber and metal parts were similarly developed. It was finally decided that the Bureau of Mines would remain as a research organization, making recommendations to the Army and Navy regarding the kinds of masks and nature of gases to be used, together with their method of manufacture, and that the construction of the mask proper should be transferred to the Surgeon General's Office of the Army. The organization working for the Bureau of Mines was turned over to this department of the Army and formed the nucleus of the present huge organization working on the construction of gas masks and other appliances for gas defense.On September 15, 1917, many of the experimentors working for the Bureau of Mines on war gas problems moved into the present headquarters of the organization at the American University, on the outskirts of Washington. The University authorities turned over the use of two large buildings at this place, rent free, but with the proviso that some of the alterations and additions, necessary for the proper conduct of the work, would be permanent and become the property of the University after the war was over. The lease of the buildings and grounds of the University extends to a period two years from July 1, 1917, or during the war if it should extend beyond the two year period.In December, 1917, a chemical corps was established in the National Army and a part of the unit sent to France. This unit is composed largely of men trained in the Bureau of Mines' organization. In December, also, a staff of chemical engineers, working for the research organization of the Bureau of Mines, developing processes for manufacturing gases, was transferred to the Bureau of Ordnance of the War Department and formed the nucleus of the present organization building huge plants for the manufacture of poison gases. Another organization, which had its inception under the Bureau of Mines, and has for its head a man who worked for the Bureau and received his training on noxious gas methods, is the proving ground unit of the War Department, established at Gunpowder Neck, for actually trying out gases on an artillery scale after they have been studied by the research organization.The personnel of the research organization also includes a group working on chemical warfare devices. These substances include aeroplane gas bombs, signal lights, smoke screens to screen merchant ships from enemy submarines, gas shells, incendiary shells, gas bombs, trench projectors for firing gas bombs, flaming guns, etc., and important recommendations have gone from the research organization covering such materials which have been adopted by departments of the Army and Navy interested and put into production. To show the small amount of money required for research work, as compared to the usefulness of some of the materials developed, I am informed that the Navy Department has placed an order for about $350,000 worth of smoke mixtures, developed by the research group, to screen merchant ships from submarines. Further, that of eight ships which were attacked, and which employed the smoke screen to avoid destruction, six escaped, while of one hundred ships which did not employ smoke screens seventy-five were torpedoed.As regards the desirability of doing work on gas masks, I understand that a soldier's fighting efficiency drops about 40% when he has to put on a mask. Frequently, under battlefield conditions, a man has to wear his mask for hours at a time. At the present time gas masks affording better protection than any masks used by the belligerents are being turned out at the rate of 7,000 to 8,000 per day, and much better masks are in the course of construction in an experimental way. Hence, it is felt that a soldier's fighting efficiency will not be reduced to such a marked extent as is necessary at the present time when he puts on a mask.
In recapitulating the work of the Bureau of Mines in inaugurating the gas warfare program with the hearty support of the Army and Navy Departments, the National Research Council, state, educational, and private institutions, we are undoubtedly months ahead of where we would otherwise have been; that our soldiers have gas masks, and will have gases with which to combat the Germans. Further, that the developments in gas mask manufacture by the Surgeon General's Office of the Army in gas manufacture and gas proving ground tests by the Bureau of Ordnance, and in the chemical warfare program of the Navy, including the use of smoke screens, shells, toxic gases, etc., are the results from this experimental work.There follows a list of the more important results accomplished by the research organization.
ORGANIZATION.
1. The development of an organization of 743 men, principally chemists and chemical engineers, to solve the problems.
2. The establishment of a huge laboratory on the outskirts of Washington at the American University. 3. The establishment of branch laboratories at Johns Hopkins University, Harvard University, National Carbon Company, at Cleveland, Ohio, Princeton University, National Electric Light Association, Cleveland, Ohio, Yale University, and many small laboratories at other places.
4. Constant and hearty cooperation with the Ordnance, Medical Signal Corps and Engineering Bureaus of the Army, and Ordnance and Construction and Repair Bureaus of the Navy on gas warfare problems.
CHEMICAL RESEARCH.
1. Charcoal is the best absorbent for poisonous gases. Forty chemists and chemical engineers have been constantly working on the development of the best type. Hundreds of samples have been prepared. As a result the charcoal used in the present Army and Navy masks is inferior to none. A very recent development in the laboratory will provide a charcoal four times as good as any at present used in any foreign mask.
2. Another absorbent used in gas masks to neutralize poisonous gases is soda-lime and an excellent product has been prepared after months of research. A large plant is in operation supplying soda-lime according to specifications supplied by the research laboratory.
3. Eyepieces in gas masks become fogged and limit the vision and usefulness of the soldiers wearing them. This is a most serious question. The research laboratory has developed an eyepiece inferior to none.
4. Rubber cloth fabrics impervious to poison gases for use in gas masks have been developed and turned over to the gas mask research division for test.
5. Sodium permanganate, another constituent used in gas masks, and very difficult to prepare, has been prepared and furnished on an industrial scale.
6. Special inflammable and kindling materials for use in incendiary bombs have been prepared in connection with the Pyrotechnic Division.
7. In the search for offensive gases, 150 have been prepared and turned over to the pharmacological division for test. Special attention has been paid to compounds that will go through the enemy mask. Fully thirty chemists have been working continually on this kind of work.
8. The now well-known mustard gas has been prepared. Preliminary large scale manufacture of this gas is under way.
9. Methods of preparation of two new gases, the great value of which has since been confirmed by the French, have been worked out in the laboratory.
10. Materials have been tested and prepared for other divisions of the organization, and analytical methods worked out.
11. Minor problems of less general interest, but of specific value, have been solved, such as disposal of waste gases at chlorpicrin plants, determination of physical constants, method of separation of chlorine from phosgene, etc.
12. The principles and practice of smoke production have called for a far-reaching investigation. The results found their consummation in work by the Pyrotechnic Division and in the adoption by the Navy of smoke devices for screening ships from enemy submarines.
13. A gas mask containing special absorbents for use against ammonia gas has been supplied which will replace cumbersome and expensive oxygen helmets for use in naval refrigeration plants.
14. Solid poisonous substances have been prepared which have been tested in armor-piercing naval shells.
15. An absorbent for carbon monoxide has been developed after several months of labor. This gas is practically the only poison gas not handled by the present gas masks. The discovery of an absorbent for it is of great importance to the Navy, also to the Army in protecting its men in sapping operations. Carbon monoxide is produced by bursting high explosive shells.
16. The Navy has adopted a gas detector, devised by the Bureau of Mines, for detecting leaking hydrogen in submarines.
MECHANICAL RESEARCH DIVISION.
In development of gas masks, full advantage has been taken of the foreign types and experts from England have assisted us in all the phases.
1. Development on Army and Navy gas masks:
(a) Nose pad developed.
(b) Mouthpiece developed.
(c) Flutter-valve improved.
(d) Mouthpiece die-casting improved.
(e) Resistance to breathing decreased.
(f) Headpiece and head harness patterns prepared.
2. Work is continually going on covering the design, construction, tests, preparation of drawings and specifications of the mechanical parts of gas masks.
3. One hundred gas masks were prepared, after an immense amount of labor, similar to the French gas mask. These were discarded because of developments in gas warfare which showed them to be unsafe.
4. A horse mask has been developed, like the British horse mask, and 350,000 of them are being made at present by the Surgeon General's Office.
5. The development of an all-rubber type of mask for the Army and Navy is practically complete; this is a very comfortable mask. Four hundred of these masks are being prepared for Army and Navy trial.
6. A trench sprayer has been developed.
7. Drawings and specifications of a trench fan, like the British, have been prepared.
8. A special nose clip for negro troops is being developed.
9. A canister for holding a carbon monoxide absorbent is being prepared.
10. The resistance to breathing of the U. S. Army mask first developed was decreased 30% by a single improvement.
11. An improved type of mask for artillerymen is under experimental construction. Artillerymen have to work harder under gas attacks than do infantrymen; hence a special mask is intended for their use.
12. An oxygen mask was designed for use by aviators and arrangements made to manufacture it. PYROTECHNIC RESEARCH.
1. Development for Navy of a smoke funnel for use on ships to screen the latter from enemy submarines.
2. Development of two distinct types of smoke floats for the above purpose.
3. Development of a smoke signal for aeroplane bombs for Army Ordnance.
4. Development of two types of incendiary bombs for Army Ordnance.
5. Development of an efficient green flare.
6. Development of improved flame thrower.
7. New form of Stokes mortar designed.
8. Work on spontaneously inflammable mixtures.
9. Work on toxic solids for use in shells.
10. Development of linings for gas shells to withstand the action of corrosive gases.
11. Work on incendiary artillery shell.
12. Work on naval smoke shell.
13. Development of a portable Army smoke apparatus.
14. Work on tracer bullets.
15. Development of gas bombs for use in training troops.
16. Work on signal lights for the Navy.
CHEMICAL MANUFACTURE.
The use of gas shells is continually increasing. The amount of gas used may be largely determined by the amount obtainable.
1. This division is charged with the development of processes for the manufacture of poison gases. These substances before the war were principally laboratory substances about which little was known. Hence a great deal of expert labor and time was required to find methods so they could be made on a large scale.
2. As a result of the research work, five poison gas plants are in course of construction by the War Department.
3. Factory processes for the manufacture of two substances for the Navy have been developed.
4. Factory processes for the manufacture of four new poison gases are being studied prior to their manufacture on a large scale.
5. A system of impregnating cloth gas masks with chemicals has been developed.As evidence of the size and importance of poison gas manufacture, it is believed that the requirements for the gases for our first army of 500,000 men will absorb practically all of the chlorine made in this country for industrial purposes. The War Department is planning to build a large chlorine plant to take care of war requirements.
PHYSIOLOGICAL DIVISION.
1. The toxicity of 150 gases has been studied.
2. The skin irritation power of 30 gases has been studied.
3. 150 dogs, 50 rabbits and 500 mice are secured, cared for, fed and observed each month.
4. 250 dogs and 50 rabbits dying from various gases have been autopsied.
5. An immense amount of work has been done in devising methods for conducting the work.
6. A cure for gas poisoning has been found that will reduce fatalities greatly. Two physiologists have gone to France to put this method into operation.
7. Supervision is maintained over laboratories and factories using and making gases so that poisoning by employees will not follow.
8. A method has been devised for studying the “tear” producing effects of substances on man. Tear substances have been examined and arranged in the order of their efficiency. It might be mentioned that these tear producing substances are used in gas shells largely against batteries to neutralize them.9. An apparatus has been devised for purifying the air of submarines. Ten of these have been installed in the latest type under-sea vessels. A life test using one of them showed that a submarine could stay under water forty-eight hours as compared to sixteen hours without the purifier.
10. An improved type of self-contained oxygen rescue apparatus has been devised. Two hundred of them are being made up at the present time. They will be used by the Army in sapping operations and other places where the ordinary type of gas masks cannot be worn.
11. A laboratory for working on psychological and physiological aviation problems is in operation at the aviation grounds at Mineola, L. I. An apparatus has been devised and is in operation at this place for determining the ability of men to withstand high altitudes.
12. A comprehensive organization for studying the pathology of “gassed” cases is being formed at the present time.
GAS MASK RESEARCH.
1. One thousand samples of different kinds and grades of charcoals have been examined to determine their usefulness for absorbing poison gases in gas masks.
2. Tests have been made on enough of all the gas masks thus far manufactured to determine their effectiveness. A large number of these tests have been made on men.
3. A great many masks of different kinds and with different fillings have been tested.
4. An immense amount of work has been done to determine the best rubber cloth fabrics for use in gas masks to withstand poison gases. Three hundred fabrics have been tested.
5. Fully twenty of the most poisonous gases have been exhaustively examined as regards their penetration of gas masks.
6. Apparatus and chemical methods have been developed in order to study these gases. Each gas requires a different procedure. It has required the services of forty chemists working practically continuously to do this.
7. Investigations have been made of the effect of humidity, concentration of gas, rate of breathing, size of particles of charcoal, etc., on the efficiency of gas masks.
8. A comparison has been made between the U. S. gas masks and foreign gas masks. It can be stated that the U. S. Army gas mask and the Navy gas mask will provide excellent protection for our troops as the result of the research work.
9. As new developments take place in gas warfare new researches are conducted to keep the gas masks up to date.
10. A certain proportion of the gas masks made daily by the Gas Mask Manufacturing Division are daily tested to see if they come up to specifications.The following is the personnel of the principal assistants engaged on the problems outlined in the foregoing report:
G. A. BURRELL – Assistant to the Director In Charge Gas Investigations.W. K. Lewis – Assistant In Charge Defense ProblemsE. P. Kohler – Assistant In Charge Offense Problems.Yandell Henderson – Assistant In Charge Physiological Problems.J. F. Norris In Charge, Chemical Research (Offense)A. B. Lamb In Charge, Chemical Research (Defense)H. H. Clark In Charge, Mechanical ResearchG. A. Richter In Charge, Pyrotechnic ResearchW. S. Rowland In Charge, Mfg. Development (Offense)W. K. Lewis In Charge, Mfg. Development (Defense)F. P. Underhill In Charge, Therapeutic ResearchE. K. Marshall In Charge, Pharmacological ResearchM.C. Winternitz In Charge, Pathological ResearchA. C. Fieldner In Charge, Gas Mask ResearchH. C. Bradley In Charge, Industrial Poisoning PreventionW. D. Bancroft Consulting Chemist and Editor of ReportsLauson Stone Superintendent.“ARGON” (CODE NAME) FOR BALLOONS.P. M. Biddison, In Charge.On July 20, 1917, you addressed a communication to the Secretary of War calling attention to the possibilities of securing “Argon” from natural gas as a substitute for hydrogen in balloons and dirigibles at a reasonable cost and in large quantities, suggesting that $27,000 be appropriated to build and equip a plant for the purpose of carrying on experimental work in extracting this gas from the natural gas fields of Kansas and Texas. This matter was brought to the attention of the Secretary of the Navy by representatives of the War Department. Both of these Departments, appreciating the possibilities of securing this gas for the purposes outlined above, joined in making an allotment of $100,000 to the Bureau of Mines to develop the Norton Process, a process which had been developed by Mr. Fred E. Norton, an engineer in the Bureau of Mines. Subsequently the possibility of securing this gas for the purposes mentioned above reached the British Admiralty, and they dispatched immediately two of their naval officers to the United States to investigate the possibilities of securing this gas in large quantities; the result being that the Army and Navy made an additional allotment of $600,000 for the work, making a total of $700,000 to carry on these investigations, and three plants were authorized under this appropriation. One of these plants is about to begin work in Texas, and another will follow in the course of the next few weeks, and the Norton Process will follow, I hope, in the course of four or five months. Hydrogen is inflammable, and many balloons and dirigibles have been burned by attacks of incendiary shells fired into them and other attacks made on them with flaming projectiles.“Argon” is a substance occurring in natural gas, and has about 88% of the lifting power of hydrogen, and is non-inflammable.The statement has been made by accredited naval officers from abroad that the only reason the German Zeppelins were combatted successfully was because of the inflammability of the gas they contained, which was set on fire by inflammable bullets; further, that if Germany possessed a source of “Argon” gas the damage done by means of Zeppelins, because of their immunity to attack, would have been tremendous. They further said that if the Allies could secure sufficient quantity of this gas the whole course of aerial warfare would be changed.The experimental work to the present time has been promising enough to warrant our feeling confident of a successful outcome of the experiments.Mr. P. M. Biddison, Engineer of the Bureau of Mines, has been placed in charge of the three experimental plants, reporting direct to the Director of the Bureau of Mines.CYANIDE PLANT FOR MANUFACTURE OF SODIUM CYANIDE.Dr. C. L. Parsons, Chief Chemist, Bureau of Mines, In Charge.Some of the gases used at the present time in warfare are those which contain a cyanide base. The manufacture of these gases, however, requires a far greater amount of sodium cyanide than can be secured in this country at the present time. Therefore, the Bureau of Ordnance has made arrangements to allot $2,000,000 to the Bureau of Mines for the construction and operation of a plant to produce sodium cyanide from which gases can be made for use in warfare.This plant will be constructed in Saltville, Virginia. The contract for this plant was authorized February 27, 1918, by the Bureau of Ordnance of the War Department.Dr. C. L. Parsons, Chief Chemist of the Bureau of Mines, has been placed in charge of construction and operation of this plant, reporting direct to the Director of the Bureau of Mines.Bimonthly reports of the results of investigations relating to gases used in warfare are made to the following:
Name.No. of Copies.Title.Colonel A. A. Fries9Chief of Gas Service, A. E. F.General H. F. Thuillier,1Director, British Chemical Warfare, (through Col. Fries),Chemical Adviser, American Embassy,1London, (through Col. Fries),Mr. A. H. Marks,2Director, Gas Service, U. S. A.,Major S. M. J. Auld,1Chemical Adviser, British Military Mission, U. S. A.Colonel R. H. Van Deman,1Chief, Military Intelligence Bureau,Capt. Roger Welles,1Chief, Navy Intelligence Bureau,Lieut. T. S. Wilkinson, U. S. N.,1Bureau of Ordnance,Lieut. J. R. Phelps, U. S. N.,1Bureau of Medicine and Surgery,Lieut. J. G. F. Squires, U.S.N.R.F.,1Bureau of Construction and Repair,Hon. Andre Tardieu,
French High Commissioner, U. S. A.
Director.
to the
S E C R E T A R Y O F T H E I N T E R I O R
on the
RESEARCH WORK
of the
BUREAU OF MINES
ON GASES USED IN WARFARE
FEBRUARY 1, 1917 to MARCH 1, 1918
VAN. H. MANNING,
DIRECTOR.
PURPOSE OF THE WORK.
Research work on chemical physiological and some mechanical problems pertaining to gas warfare for the Army and Navy.
ORGANIZATION
.PERSONNEL.)..... Civilians 376
Exclusive)..... Commissioned officers 56 of “Argon”)..... Enlisted men 311and Cyan-) ide Plants.)Total 743
Report to)follow lat-)er when)these plants )are in full)operation.)
APPROPRIATIONS AVAILABLE TO DATE.
Army – Bureau of Ordnance $524,500
Army - Surgeon General's Office 437,500
Navy – National Security and Defense Fund
150,000 Total appropriations made to March 1, 1918,$1,112,000
OXYGEN APPARATUS INVESTIGATIONS.
Army – Signal Corps 150,000“ARGON” INVESTIGATIONS.
Army – Signal Corps $350,000
Navy – Bureau Steam Engineering
350,000
Total appropriation 700,000
CYANIDE PLANT 2,000,000
Total allotment for war work $3,962,000
DEPARTMENTS.
Chemical Research
Mechanical Research
Pyrotechnic Research
Chemical Manufacture
Therapeutic Research
Physiological Research
Pathological Research
Pharmacological Research
Gas Mask Research
Administration
Cyanide Plant
“Argon” Investigations.
DEVELOPMENT OF GAS WARFARE WORK BY THE BUREAU OF MINES.
The Bureau of Mines, for its work on mining problems, has made a study of poisonous and explosive gases, the use of rescue apparatus and masks of various kinds for entering and exploring noxious atmospheres, methods of treatment of gas cases and other matters pertaining to these problems. This work has extended over a period of about ten years. Many publications have been issued by the Bureau on these subjects and many practical results have been obtained.
Early in February of 1917, when war between the United States and the Central Powers seemed inevitable, the Bureau of Mines called the attention of the War Department to the already existing technical organization in the Bureau, for the study of poisonous gases in mines, gas masks, etc., and offered the facilities of the Bureau to the War Department for this work. A meeting was arranged between representatives of the Bureau and the War College; the latter organization being represented by General Kuhn and Major Williamson. At this conference the War Department enthusiastically accepted the offer of the Bureau of Mines and agreed to support the work in every way possible. The Director of the Bureau of Mines immediately directed investigations on these war problems, and until July 1, 1917, carried the work along with funds of the Bureau. The first work was done on the development of gas masks. An enthusiastic and able cooperator from the Surgeon General's Office was Major L. P. Williamson, who gave much of his time and was of the very greatest assistance in the early days of the work. On July 1, 1917, the staff consisted of fifty paid investigators and the work had expanded from gas mask research to the study of poison gases and chemical warfare appliances for offense purposes. In order to enlist the cooperation of the universities and research institutions in the United States, personal visits were made to practically all of the important ones. The response was most gratifying. Up to the present time some extremely important work has come out of these universities and institutions.
On April 6, 1917, the following committee on gases used in warfare was formed by the National Research Council for the purpose of cooperating with the Bureau of Mines in connection with this work:Van. H. Manning, Chairman,... Director, U. S. Bureau of Mines,Col. Edwin B. Babbitt,..... Office of Ordnance, U. S. A.,Maj. L. P. Williamson,..... Medical Department, U. S. A.,Lt. (j. g.) T. S. Wilkinson,.. Bureau of Ordnance, U. S. N.,Medical Director J. D. Gatewood, Medical Department, U. S. N.,Dr. Marston T. Bogert,..... Professor of Organic Chemistry, Columbia University,Dr. Carl L. Alsberg,...... Chief, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Owing to reassignment of certain Army and Navy officers and additions to the committee it is now composed of the following:Van. H. Manning, Chairman,... Director, U. S. Bureau of Mines,George E. Hale, (Ex-officio).. Director, Mt. Wilson Solar Observatory, National Research Council,Lt. Col. R.A. Millikan, (Ex-officio) National Resarch Council, Science and Research Division, Signal Corps,Carl L. Alsberg,...... Chief, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,Maj. Earl J. Atkisson,..... Corps of Engineers, U. S. A.,Lt. Col. Marston T. Bogert,.. Chemical Service, N. A.Lt. Col. Bradley Dewey,.... Gas Defense Service, Surgeon General's Office,A. H. Marks,.......... Director, Gas Service, U. S. A.,Lieut. Joseph R. Phelps,.... P. A. Surgeon, Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, U. S. N.,Lt. Col. Earl J. W. Ragsdale,. Bureau of Ordnance, U. S. A.,Lieut. T. S. Wilkinson,.... Bureau of Ordnance, U. S. N.This committee has worked in hearty cooperation with the Bureau of Mines.Until August, 1917, the Bureau of Mines also supervised the construction of gas masks. Experiments from laboratory scale were developed into large scale proportions and charcoal soda lime permanganate and other chemicals used in the masks were made in large quantities. On the mechanical side, the rubber and metal parts were similarly developed. It was finally decided that the Bureau of Mines would remain as a research organization, making recommendations to the Army and Navy regarding the kinds of masks and nature of gases to be used, together with their method of manufacture, and that the construction of the mask proper should be transferred to the Surgeon General's Office of the Army. The organization working for the Bureau of Mines was turned over to this department of the Army and formed the nucleus of the present huge organization working on the construction of gas masks and other appliances for gas defense.On September 15, 1917, many of the experimentors working for the Bureau of Mines on war gas problems moved into the present headquarters of the organization at the American University, on the outskirts of Washington. The University authorities turned over the use of two large buildings at this place, rent free, but with the proviso that some of the alterations and additions, necessary for the proper conduct of the work, would be permanent and become the property of the University after the war was over. The lease of the buildings and grounds of the University extends to a period two years from July 1, 1917, or during the war if it should extend beyond the two year period.In December, 1917, a chemical corps was established in the National Army and a part of the unit sent to France. This unit is composed largely of men trained in the Bureau of Mines' organization. In December, also, a staff of chemical engineers, working for the research organization of the Bureau of Mines, developing processes for manufacturing gases, was transferred to the Bureau of Ordnance of the War Department and formed the nucleus of the present organization building huge plants for the manufacture of poison gases. Another organization, which had its inception under the Bureau of Mines, and has for its head a man who worked for the Bureau and received his training on noxious gas methods, is the proving ground unit of the War Department, established at Gunpowder Neck, for actually trying out gases on an artillery scale after they have been studied by the research organization.The personnel of the research organization also includes a group working on chemical warfare devices. These substances include aeroplane gas bombs, signal lights, smoke screens to screen merchant ships from enemy submarines, gas shells, incendiary shells, gas bombs, trench projectors for firing gas bombs, flaming guns, etc., and important recommendations have gone from the research organization covering such materials which have been adopted by departments of the Army and Navy interested and put into production. To show the small amount of money required for research work, as compared to the usefulness of some of the materials developed, I am informed that the Navy Department has placed an order for about $350,000 worth of smoke mixtures, developed by the research group, to screen merchant ships from submarines. Further, that of eight ships which were attacked, and which employed the smoke screen to avoid destruction, six escaped, while of one hundred ships which did not employ smoke screens seventy-five were torpedoed.As regards the desirability of doing work on gas masks, I understand that a soldier's fighting efficiency drops about 40% when he has to put on a mask. Frequently, under battlefield conditions, a man has to wear his mask for hours at a time. At the present time gas masks affording better protection than any masks used by the belligerents are being turned out at the rate of 7,000 to 8,000 per day, and much better masks are in the course of construction in an experimental way. Hence, it is felt that a soldier's fighting efficiency will not be reduced to such a marked extent as is necessary at the present time when he puts on a mask.
In recapitulating the work of the Bureau of Mines in inaugurating the gas warfare program with the hearty support of the Army and Navy Departments, the National Research Council, state, educational, and private institutions, we are undoubtedly months ahead of where we would otherwise have been; that our soldiers have gas masks, and will have gases with which to combat the Germans. Further, that the developments in gas mask manufacture by the Surgeon General's Office of the Army in gas manufacture and gas proving ground tests by the Bureau of Ordnance, and in the chemical warfare program of the Navy, including the use of smoke screens, shells, toxic gases, etc., are the results from this experimental work.There follows a list of the more important results accomplished by the research organization.
ORGANIZATION.
1. The development of an organization of 743 men, principally chemists and chemical engineers, to solve the problems.
2. The establishment of a huge laboratory on the outskirts of Washington at the American University. 3. The establishment of branch laboratories at Johns Hopkins University, Harvard University, National Carbon Company, at Cleveland, Ohio, Princeton University, National Electric Light Association, Cleveland, Ohio, Yale University, and many small laboratories at other places.
4. Constant and hearty cooperation with the Ordnance, Medical Signal Corps and Engineering Bureaus of the Army, and Ordnance and Construction and Repair Bureaus of the Navy on gas warfare problems.
CHEMICAL RESEARCH.
1. Charcoal is the best absorbent for poisonous gases. Forty chemists and chemical engineers have been constantly working on the development of the best type. Hundreds of samples have been prepared. As a result the charcoal used in the present Army and Navy masks is inferior to none. A very recent development in the laboratory will provide a charcoal four times as good as any at present used in any foreign mask.
2. Another absorbent used in gas masks to neutralize poisonous gases is soda-lime and an excellent product has been prepared after months of research. A large plant is in operation supplying soda-lime according to specifications supplied by the research laboratory.
3. Eyepieces in gas masks become fogged and limit the vision and usefulness of the soldiers wearing them. This is a most serious question. The research laboratory has developed an eyepiece inferior to none.
4. Rubber cloth fabrics impervious to poison gases for use in gas masks have been developed and turned over to the gas mask research division for test.
5. Sodium permanganate, another constituent used in gas masks, and very difficult to prepare, has been prepared and furnished on an industrial scale.
6. Special inflammable and kindling materials for use in incendiary bombs have been prepared in connection with the Pyrotechnic Division.
7. In the search for offensive gases, 150 have been prepared and turned over to the pharmacological division for test. Special attention has been paid to compounds that will go through the enemy mask. Fully thirty chemists have been working continually on this kind of work.
8. The now well-known mustard gas has been prepared. Preliminary large scale manufacture of this gas is under way.
9. Methods of preparation of two new gases, the great value of which has since been confirmed by the French, have been worked out in the laboratory.
10. Materials have been tested and prepared for other divisions of the organization, and analytical methods worked out.
11. Minor problems of less general interest, but of specific value, have been solved, such as disposal of waste gases at chlorpicrin plants, determination of physical constants, method of separation of chlorine from phosgene, etc.
12. The principles and practice of smoke production have called for a far-reaching investigation. The results found their consummation in work by the Pyrotechnic Division and in the adoption by the Navy of smoke devices for screening ships from enemy submarines.
13. A gas mask containing special absorbents for use against ammonia gas has been supplied which will replace cumbersome and expensive oxygen helmets for use in naval refrigeration plants.
14. Solid poisonous substances have been prepared which have been tested in armor-piercing naval shells.
15. An absorbent for carbon monoxide has been developed after several months of labor. This gas is practically the only poison gas not handled by the present gas masks. The discovery of an absorbent for it is of great importance to the Navy, also to the Army in protecting its men in sapping operations. Carbon monoxide is produced by bursting high explosive shells.
16. The Navy has adopted a gas detector, devised by the Bureau of Mines, for detecting leaking hydrogen in submarines.
MECHANICAL RESEARCH DIVISION.
In development of gas masks, full advantage has been taken of the foreign types and experts from England have assisted us in all the phases.
1. Development on Army and Navy gas masks:
(a) Nose pad developed.
(b) Mouthpiece developed.
(c) Flutter-valve improved.
(d) Mouthpiece die-casting improved.
(e) Resistance to breathing decreased.
(f) Headpiece and head harness patterns prepared.
2. Work is continually going on covering the design, construction, tests, preparation of drawings and specifications of the mechanical parts of gas masks.
3. One hundred gas masks were prepared, after an immense amount of labor, similar to the French gas mask. These were discarded because of developments in gas warfare which showed them to be unsafe.
4. A horse mask has been developed, like the British horse mask, and 350,000 of them are being made at present by the Surgeon General's Office.
5. The development of an all-rubber type of mask for the Army and Navy is practically complete; this is a very comfortable mask. Four hundred of these masks are being prepared for Army and Navy trial.
6. A trench sprayer has been developed.
7. Drawings and specifications of a trench fan, like the British, have been prepared.
8. A special nose clip for negro troops is being developed.
9. A canister for holding a carbon monoxide absorbent is being prepared.
10. The resistance to breathing of the U. S. Army mask first developed was decreased 30% by a single improvement.
11. An improved type of mask for artillerymen is under experimental construction. Artillerymen have to work harder under gas attacks than do infantrymen; hence a special mask is intended for their use.
12. An oxygen mask was designed for use by aviators and arrangements made to manufacture it. PYROTECHNIC RESEARCH.
1. Development for Navy of a smoke funnel for use on ships to screen the latter from enemy submarines.
2. Development of two distinct types of smoke floats for the above purpose.
3. Development of a smoke signal for aeroplane bombs for Army Ordnance.
4. Development of two types of incendiary bombs for Army Ordnance.
5. Development of an efficient green flare.
6. Development of improved flame thrower.
7. New form of Stokes mortar designed.
8. Work on spontaneously inflammable mixtures.
9. Work on toxic solids for use in shells.
10. Development of linings for gas shells to withstand the action of corrosive gases.
11. Work on incendiary artillery shell.
12. Work on naval smoke shell.
13. Development of a portable Army smoke apparatus.
14. Work on tracer bullets.
15. Development of gas bombs for use in training troops.
16. Work on signal lights for the Navy.
CHEMICAL MANUFACTURE.
The use of gas shells is continually increasing. The amount of gas used may be largely determined by the amount obtainable.
1. This division is charged with the development of processes for the manufacture of poison gases. These substances before the war were principally laboratory substances about which little was known. Hence a great deal of expert labor and time was required to find methods so they could be made on a large scale.
2. As a result of the research work, five poison gas plants are in course of construction by the War Department.
3. Factory processes for the manufacture of two substances for the Navy have been developed.
4. Factory processes for the manufacture of four new poison gases are being studied prior to their manufacture on a large scale.
5. A system of impregnating cloth gas masks with chemicals has been developed.As evidence of the size and importance of poison gas manufacture, it is believed that the requirements for the gases for our first army of 500,000 men will absorb practically all of the chlorine made in this country for industrial purposes. The War Department is planning to build a large chlorine plant to take care of war requirements.
PHYSIOLOGICAL DIVISION.
1. The toxicity of 150 gases has been studied.
2. The skin irritation power of 30 gases has been studied.
3. 150 dogs, 50 rabbits and 500 mice are secured, cared for, fed and observed each month.
4. 250 dogs and 50 rabbits dying from various gases have been autopsied.
5. An immense amount of work has been done in devising methods for conducting the work.
6. A cure for gas poisoning has been found that will reduce fatalities greatly. Two physiologists have gone to France to put this method into operation.
7. Supervision is maintained over laboratories and factories using and making gases so that poisoning by employees will not follow.
8. A method has been devised for studying the “tear” producing effects of substances on man. Tear substances have been examined and arranged in the order of their efficiency. It might be mentioned that these tear producing substances are used in gas shells largely against batteries to neutralize them.9. An apparatus has been devised for purifying the air of submarines. Ten of these have been installed in the latest type under-sea vessels. A life test using one of them showed that a submarine could stay under water forty-eight hours as compared to sixteen hours without the purifier.
10. An improved type of self-contained oxygen rescue apparatus has been devised. Two hundred of them are being made up at the present time. They will be used by the Army in sapping operations and other places where the ordinary type of gas masks cannot be worn.
11. A laboratory for working on psychological and physiological aviation problems is in operation at the aviation grounds at Mineola, L. I. An apparatus has been devised and is in operation at this place for determining the ability of men to withstand high altitudes.
12. A comprehensive organization for studying the pathology of “gassed” cases is being formed at the present time.
GAS MASK RESEARCH.
1. One thousand samples of different kinds and grades of charcoals have been examined to determine their usefulness for absorbing poison gases in gas masks.
2. Tests have been made on enough of all the gas masks thus far manufactured to determine their effectiveness. A large number of these tests have been made on men.
3. A great many masks of different kinds and with different fillings have been tested.
4. An immense amount of work has been done to determine the best rubber cloth fabrics for use in gas masks to withstand poison gases. Three hundred fabrics have been tested.
5. Fully twenty of the most poisonous gases have been exhaustively examined as regards their penetration of gas masks.
6. Apparatus and chemical methods have been developed in order to study these gases. Each gas requires a different procedure. It has required the services of forty chemists working practically continuously to do this.
7. Investigations have been made of the effect of humidity, concentration of gas, rate of breathing, size of particles of charcoal, etc., on the efficiency of gas masks.
8. A comparison has been made between the U. S. gas masks and foreign gas masks. It can be stated that the U. S. Army gas mask and the Navy gas mask will provide excellent protection for our troops as the result of the research work.
9. As new developments take place in gas warfare new researches are conducted to keep the gas masks up to date.
10. A certain proportion of the gas masks made daily by the Gas Mask Manufacturing Division are daily tested to see if they come up to specifications.The following is the personnel of the principal assistants engaged on the problems outlined in the foregoing report:
G. A. BURRELL – Assistant to the Director In Charge Gas Investigations.W. K. Lewis – Assistant In Charge Defense ProblemsE. P. Kohler – Assistant In Charge Offense Problems.Yandell Henderson – Assistant In Charge Physiological Problems.J. F. Norris In Charge, Chemical Research (Offense)A. B. Lamb In Charge, Chemical Research (Defense)H. H. Clark In Charge, Mechanical ResearchG. A. Richter In Charge, Pyrotechnic ResearchW. S. Rowland In Charge, Mfg. Development (Offense)W. K. Lewis In Charge, Mfg. Development (Defense)F. P. Underhill In Charge, Therapeutic ResearchE. K. Marshall In Charge, Pharmacological ResearchM.C. Winternitz In Charge, Pathological ResearchA. C. Fieldner In Charge, Gas Mask ResearchH. C. Bradley In Charge, Industrial Poisoning PreventionW. D. Bancroft Consulting Chemist and Editor of ReportsLauson Stone Superintendent.“ARGON” (CODE NAME) FOR BALLOONS.P. M. Biddison, In Charge.On July 20, 1917, you addressed a communication to the Secretary of War calling attention to the possibilities of securing “Argon” from natural gas as a substitute for hydrogen in balloons and dirigibles at a reasonable cost and in large quantities, suggesting that $27,000 be appropriated to build and equip a plant for the purpose of carrying on experimental work in extracting this gas from the natural gas fields of Kansas and Texas. This matter was brought to the attention of the Secretary of the Navy by representatives of the War Department. Both of these Departments, appreciating the possibilities of securing this gas for the purposes outlined above, joined in making an allotment of $100,000 to the Bureau of Mines to develop the Norton Process, a process which had been developed by Mr. Fred E. Norton, an engineer in the Bureau of Mines. Subsequently the possibility of securing this gas for the purposes mentioned above reached the British Admiralty, and they dispatched immediately two of their naval officers to the United States to investigate the possibilities of securing this gas in large quantities; the result being that the Army and Navy made an additional allotment of $600,000 for the work, making a total of $700,000 to carry on these investigations, and three plants were authorized under this appropriation. One of these plants is about to begin work in Texas, and another will follow in the course of the next few weeks, and the Norton Process will follow, I hope, in the course of four or five months. Hydrogen is inflammable, and many balloons and dirigibles have been burned by attacks of incendiary shells fired into them and other attacks made on them with flaming projectiles.“Argon” is a substance occurring in natural gas, and has about 88% of the lifting power of hydrogen, and is non-inflammable.The statement has been made by accredited naval officers from abroad that the only reason the German Zeppelins were combatted successfully was because of the inflammability of the gas they contained, which was set on fire by inflammable bullets; further, that if Germany possessed a source of “Argon” gas the damage done by means of Zeppelins, because of their immunity to attack, would have been tremendous. They further said that if the Allies could secure sufficient quantity of this gas the whole course of aerial warfare would be changed.The experimental work to the present time has been promising enough to warrant our feeling confident of a successful outcome of the experiments.Mr. P. M. Biddison, Engineer of the Bureau of Mines, has been placed in charge of the three experimental plants, reporting direct to the Director of the Bureau of Mines.CYANIDE PLANT FOR MANUFACTURE OF SODIUM CYANIDE.Dr. C. L. Parsons, Chief Chemist, Bureau of Mines, In Charge.Some of the gases used at the present time in warfare are those which contain a cyanide base. The manufacture of these gases, however, requires a far greater amount of sodium cyanide than can be secured in this country at the present time. Therefore, the Bureau of Ordnance has made arrangements to allot $2,000,000 to the Bureau of Mines for the construction and operation of a plant to produce sodium cyanide from which gases can be made for use in warfare.This plant will be constructed in Saltville, Virginia. The contract for this plant was authorized February 27, 1918, by the Bureau of Ordnance of the War Department.Dr. C. L. Parsons, Chief Chemist of the Bureau of Mines, has been placed in charge of construction and operation of this plant, reporting direct to the Director of the Bureau of Mines.Bimonthly reports of the results of investigations relating to gases used in warfare are made to the following:
Name.No. of Copies.Title.Colonel A. A. Fries9Chief of Gas Service, A. E. F.General H. F. Thuillier,1Director, British Chemical Warfare, (through Col. Fries),Chemical Adviser, American Embassy,1London, (through Col. Fries),Mr. A. H. Marks,2Director, Gas Service, U. S. A.,Major S. M. J. Auld,1Chemical Adviser, British Military Mission, U. S. A.Colonel R. H. Van Deman,1Chief, Military Intelligence Bureau,Capt. Roger Welles,1Chief, Navy Intelligence Bureau,Lieut. T. S. Wilkinson, U. S. N.,1Bureau of Ordnance,Lieut. J. R. Phelps, U. S. N.,1Bureau of Medicine and Surgery,Lieut. J. G. F. Squires, U.S.N.R.F.,1Bureau of Construction and Repair,Hon. Andre Tardieu,
French High Commissioner, U. S. A.
Director.
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